Effects of different growing environments on strawberry growth and yield

Implementing innovative technologies in agriculture is very important to improve agricultural production efficiency, yield, and quality¹. Therefore, in agrarian practice, bioproducts are increasingly used, which aim to strengthen the biological protection of plants by reducing the spread of pathogens and pests, increasing crop productivity^{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. Employing bioproducts has the potential to decrease crop production expenses and enhance soil nutrient utilization efficiency by mitigating diseases resulting from nutrient deficiencies^8,9. Bioproducts exert numerous effects in agriculture, with scientists primarily emphasizing their beneficial impacts on plants and soil¹⁰.

Applying bioproducts—often derived from molasses and enriched with nutrients—can enhance plant growth, development, and photosynthesis by stimulating microbial activity in the rhizosphere. These bioproducts function as microbial inoculants or stimulants, increasing the abundance and metabolic activity of beneficial soil microorganisms. As a result, soil microbes contribute to nutrient cycling by producing phytohormones, releasing enzymes that break down organic matter, and synthesizing compounds such as siderophores and organic acids, which improve nutrient availability and suppress pathogens^{11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18}.

Molasses, rich in readily available sugars (e.g., sucrose, glucose, and fructose), acts as an immediate energy source for soil microbiota and contains essential trace elements (e.g., K, Ca, Mg), organic acids, and amino acids that further enhance microbial metabolism and soil fertility^{19,20,21,22,23}. While the combined use of molasses with organic or mineral fertilizers shows promise for improving soil health and plant productivity, the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood, and more targeted research is needed²⁴.

The favorable effects of bioproducts on soil quality and crop productivity, along with their potential as alternatives to synthetic agrochemicals, have attracted growing scientific interest. However, successful application requires a deep understanding of formulation, dosing, and application methods tailored to specific crops. Strawberries are an excellent model because their growing practices are often similar to high-value fruits and vegetables.

Strawberries are a suitable model for studying due to visible growth indicators. In addition, strawberries are one of the most popular fruits in the world^25,26. Strawberries are grown in almost all countries, including the tropics, subtropics, and temperate regions²⁷. As strawberries grow in different climatic areas, where growing media conditions can vary, it is essential to investigate how different growing media affect plant productivity. Therefore, this study aims to examine the impact of a bioproduct on the productivity indicators and chlorophyll index of strawberries across various growing media. The implications of this study are significant for optimizing strawberry cultivation practices. By examining the impact of a bioproduct on productivity indicators and the chlorophyll index across various growing media, the findings can guide more efficient use of bioproducts in agriculture, leading to more sustainable farming practices.

Effect of bioproduct on plant height in different growing media

On May 29, initial measurements showed that plant height ranged from 10.13 cm to 12.93 cm in media without bioproduct and 11.55 cm to 14.93 cm in media with bioproduct (Fig. 1), suggesting a potential early advantage of bioproduct application. After researching on June 6, an increase in plant height was determined in all treatments by 0.68–17.3%, reflecting a general positive growth trend. From the beginning of the growing season until June 13, the bioproduct increased the growth of strawberries cultivated in growing media with sandy characteristics by as much as 49.25%. This indicates that bioproducts may be especially beneficial in media with lower natural fertility. After that, plant growth slowed due to the disease “Verticillium”. This disease spreads in strawberries due to nutrient deficiency, particularly calcium. After fertilizing compound mineral fertilizers at the rate recommended by the manufacturer, plant recovery was observed in all variants without bioproduct. In many treatments, except for loam, the height of the strawberry plants increased; however, a decrease was observed in July. In the treatments with the bioproduct, mineral compound fertilizers had a greater influence on the coconut fiber variant, as the strawberry culms recovered and new leaves began to grow, while in the growing media without the bioproduct, some strawberry culms decayed, or their growth rate was slower. Notably, without bioproduct, coconut fiber showed a marked reduction in plant height on June 13 and 27, indicating its limited support for plant development in the absence of biological stimulation. On June 21, July 9, and 24, plant height in coconut fiber remained significantly lower than in sandy loam. On June 13, 21, and 27, plant height trends in treatments with the bioproduct were like those without it; however, not all comparisons showed statistically significant differences.

Plant height in different growing media: (a) without bioproduct; (b) with bioproduct.

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After assessing the average height of strawberry plants throughout the entire research period, an increase in plant height (approximately 9.5%) was observed when using the bioproduct in loam and coconut fiber media, compared to the treatments without bioproduct usage (Fig. 2). This trend suggests that bioproduct may promote shoot growth in substrates with either balanced nutrient profiles (loam) or low fertility but high porosity (coconut fiber). Conversely, in clay, sandy loam, and compost media with bioproducts, there was a decrease in plant height by about 7.8% compared to the treatments without bioproduct usage. However, both the decrease and increase in plant height were statistically insignificant. These variations may reflect interactions between bioproduct activity and media-specific physical or chemical constraints. Notably, the height of the strawberry plant was observed to be the lowest in coconut fiber media compared to other growing media, suggesting that in this treatment, the plant’s energy is directed more toward berry production rather than plant height.

Effect of the bioproduct on the average plant height in different growing media throughout the experiments. – increase compared to control, – decrease compared to control. Common letters (a, b, c, d, e) denote no significant difference between the identical growing media.

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Effect of bioproducts on plant width in various growing media

The initial width of strawberries without using the bioproduct was determined on May 29, and its limits varied from 12.63 cm (clay) to 18.08 cm (sandy loam) (Fig. 3a), and with bioproduct—from 15.1 cm (clay) to 19.8 cm (sandy loam) (Fig. 3b). After a week, the width of the strawberry crown increased by 6.19–27% with the bioproduct in all treatments, and by 15.04–35.4% without the bioproduct. This rapid early expansion likely reflects favorable early establishment conditions. After measuring the width of the strawberry on June 13, an increase of up to 31.09% was found in all growing media, except for the coconut fiber treatment without bioproduct, where a decrease of up to 5.7% was found. After another week, the increase in the width of the strawberry leaves slowed down, which led us to suspect that the strawberry heads were affected by verticillium wilt (a disease in which the leaves of the strawberry head turn up and then the head dies). After using compound fertilizers, the situation was controlled, and the strawberry plant width increased by up to 17% in all growing media. After the growing season, the width of the strawberry was the smallest in the coconut fiber treatment without bioproduct, 23.83 cm, and the largest with the bioproduct, sandy loam—42.63 cm. These findings suggest a synergistic effect between the bioproduct and well-draining, nutrient-responsive media such as sandy loam. Without and with bioproduct, a significant reduction of plant width was obtained on June 13 in coconut fiber growing media compared to all other media. On June 21 and 27, the coconut fiber growing media was compared with sandy loam.

Plant width in different growing media: (a) without bioproduct; (b) with bioproduct.

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Experimental results showed that the average plant width increased in clay (7.82%), sandy loam (4.38%), and coconut fiber (10.26%) after bioproduct application, compared to treatments without the bioproduct (Fig. 4). These increases suggest a modest positive physiological response, particularly in substrates with moderate structure and drainage. Compared to those without bioproducts, strawberry width was reduced in loam (3.63%) and compost (9.9%) with bioproducts, where the respective values were 29.21 cm and 32.63 cm. This reduction may indicate that in nutrient-richer or more moisture-retentive media, the additional input of the bioproduct did not further enhance plant width and may have caused mild nutrient imbalance or stress. The studies identified that a decrease and an increase in plant width were insignificant.

Effect of the bioproduct on the average plant width in different growing media throughout the experiments. –Increase compared to control, -decrease compared to control. Common letters (a, b, c, d, e) denote no significant difference between the identical growing media.

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Plant height positively correlates with plant width in all growing media, without and with bioproduct application (Figs. 5 and 6). This indicates that as plants grow taller, they also tend to expand in width, reflecting overall vegetative vigor. However, in sandy loam under bioproduct treatment, only a very weak correlation was observed, suggesting that growth in this medium may be less uniform or influenced by additional factors such as moisture retention or nutrient dynamics.

Correlation between plant height and width in different growing media without bioproduct.

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Correlation between plant height and width in different growing media with bioproduct.

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Effect of bioproducts on chlorophyll index in various growing media

After a week, the leaf chlorophyll index decreased to 16.44% in most treatments, except for clay and compost treatments without bioproduct and sandy loam treatments with bioproduct (Fig. 7). This suggests that early plant stress or nutrient imbalances may have temporarily affected photosynthetic activity in several media. A decrease in the leaf chlorophyll index was also determined during another measurement, except for the compost in which the bioproduct was not used. On June 21, analysis of treatments without bioproduct showed that the leaf chlorophyll index increased in loam by 4.3%, in clay by 3.8%, and in sandy loam by 24.8%, while it decreased in compost soil by 6.33% and in coconut fiber by 5.92%. These divergent trends point to a possible interaction between growing media composition and inherent nutrient buffering capacity. After using bioproduct and compound fertilizers, an increase in the leaf chlorophyll index by 3.56–14.83% was observed in all treatments, indicating that the bioproduct may have helped restore photosynthetic capacity following initial stress or deficiency.

Chlorophyll index in different growing media: (a) without bioproduct; (b) with bioproduct.

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After evaluating the entire research period, an increase in the chlorophyll index of the plant leaves was determined in sandy loam (11.13%) and coconut fiber (13.04%) with bioproduct, compared to the option without bioproduct (Fig. 8). A decrease in the chlorophyll index was found in the loam (5.74%), clay (6.57%), and compost (16.19%) treatments with bioproduct, compared to treatments without bioproduct. Although these changes were not statistically significant, the trends suggest that the bioproduct may enhance photosynthetic efficiency primarily in lighter, well-drained substrates.

Effect of the bioproduct on the average chlorophyll index in different growing media throughout the experiments. – increase compared to control, – decrease compared to control. Common letters (a, b, c, d, e) denote no significant difference between the identical growing media.

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Plant width was found to negatively correlate with chlorophyll index across all growing media, without and with bioproduct application (Figs. 9 and 10). As plant width increased, the chlorophyll index decreased, which may suggest a physiological trade-off between vegetative expansion and chlorophyll synthesis or retention, possibly influenced by resource allocation dynamics. However, in compost under bioproduct treatment, only a very weak correlation was observed, indicating that the response of plants in this medium may be affected by other limiting factors, such as microbial activity variability or nutrient-binding capacity.

Correlation between plant width and chlorophyll index in different growing media without bioproduct.

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Correlation between plant width and chlorophyll index in different growing media with bioproduct.

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Effect of bioproducts on yield in various planting media

The most significant bioproduct influence on the strawberry yield was found in compost and coconut fiber (Fig. 11). In compost treatment with bioproduct, the yield was 53.52 g plant^− 1, and without bioproduct, 25.54 g plant^− 1. In the coconut fiber treatment with bioproduct, the yield was 16.03 g plant^− 1, and without bioproduct, 1.03 g plant^− 1. This strong yield increase, particularly in coconut fiber, highlights the bioproduct’s effectiveness in low-fertility or inert substrates. The yield was very low in the treatment without the bioproduct because the strawberry plants became diseased and did not have enough time to produce berries. This suggests that the bioproduct may have supported plant resistance and improved early development under stress-prone conditions. Statistically significant differences were observed between treatments within the same growing media. In other treatments of growing media, the bioproduct did not positively affect the yield increase.

Effect of bioproduct on the strawberry yield in different growing media. Different letters (a, b) denote a significant difference between the identical growing media.

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The experimental studies determined an average increase in strawberry height of about 9.5% in loam and coconut fiber media when bioproduct was used compared to without bioproduct²⁸. reported that the use of biological products resulted in a greater plant height in their study. Bioproducts comprise macro and micronutrients, low molecular weight molecules, and a variety of biologically active substances (including plant hormone-like compounds, enzymes, and vitamins) that significantly interact with plant physiology, promoting growth. Additionally, they enhance plant resistance to environmental and biotic stress^29,30. The microbial stimulation induced by the molasses-based bioproduct (BIO1) may be partially responsible for these effects, as molasses provides readily available carbon sources that fuel microbial metabolism in the rhizosphere^31,32. Increased microbial activity may enhance nutrient mineralization, competition with pathogens, and production of growth-promoting metabolites³³. However, this approach differs from commercial microbial inoculants that introduce standardized, well-characterized microbial strains with targeted functionality and known survival rates under specific conditions. In contrast, BIO1 relies on stimulating indigenous microbial populations, whose composition and response are less predictable and strongly dependent on the physicochemical properties of the substrate^34,35,36. This may explain the variable effects observed across different media in this study. In our other tested media (clay, sandy loam, and compost), plant height decreased by about 7.8%. This could have been due to an imbalanced temperature and moisture ratio in samples³⁷. Strawberry plant height was lowest in coconut fiber media compared to other growing media, indicating that plant energy was directed more toward berry production than plant height in this treatment.

After conducting experimental studies on the plant width, the highest average increase was found in coconut fiber (10.26%) using a bioproduct compared to the treatment where no bioproduct was used. A slightly smaller increase was observed in clay (7.82%) and sandy loam (4.38%). These increases suggest enhanced physiological activity, likely influenced by bioproduct-induced hormonal effects, as supported by earlier studies^38,39,40. A more expansive canopy may improve water use efficiency, contributing to plant health and yield, as broader leaves enhance transpiration and photosynthesis⁴¹. However, a decrease in plant width was found in loam (3.63%) and compost (9.9%) with bioproduct, possibly due to elevated media temperature and moisture imbalance affecting nutrient availability^37,42,43,44.

The leaf chlorophyll index, which is commonly associated with photosynthetic efficiency and plant vigor⁴⁵, increased in sandy loam (by 11%) and coconut fiber (by 13%) media with the bioproduct compared to treatments without the bioproduct. In contrast, in other media—loam, clay, and compost—the chlorophyll index decreased by 6%, 7%, and 17%, respectively. Previous research suggests that specific components of bioproducts, such as bioactive substances and potassium humates, may contribute to increased chlorophyll content, improved phosphorus uptake, and enhanced cell permeability^{46,47,48,49,50,51,52}.

Coconut fiber was the only substrate in which the bioproduct led to a substantial yield increase of 1456.3%. This suggests that, although nutrient-poor, coconut fiber responds exceptionally well to bioproduct supplementation. Similar findings were reported by, where bioproducts significantly improved yield in low-fertility media due to enhanced nutrient uptake and hormonal stimulation⁵³. In contrast, our study showed yield reductions in loam, clay, and sandy loam, highlighting that the effectiveness of bioproducts is strongly dependent on the growing medium. Previous studies also emphasize that the interaction between bioactive compounds and growing media structure can promote or inhibit plant productivity⁵⁴. Therefore, combining coconut fiber and bioproduct appears especially promising for soilless cultivation systems, where external inputs can be precisely managed.

Experiment design

The experimental study was conducted between April and July in the specialized greenhouse of the Agriculture Academy, designed to uphold natural climatic conditions with greenhouse air temperature set at 22 °C and relative air humidity at 70%. Within this study, laboratory experiments were conducted using “Asia” strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa) grown in specialized containers containing various growing media (Fig. 12): loam, clay, sandy loam, compost, and coconut fiber. Strawberry seedlings were obtained from a local farmer in Lithuania. The compost was a mixture comprising peat and cattle manure in a 4:1 ratio. Following crushing and sieving, the compost received an application of 1 kg m^− 3 of the mineral fertilizer NPK12-10-16. The growing media was enriched with 20–50 mg L^− 1 of magnesium (MgO), resulting in a pH range of 5.5–7.0. Coconut fiber, a natural growing medium derived from coconut husks, had its salt removed, and its pH was adjusted to 6. In line with recommendations from strawberry growers⁵⁵, loam was selected as the control medium among the various growing media due to its suitability for the “Asia” strawberry variety. When choosing different media for growing strawberries, we considered the preference for slightly acidic conditions (pH 5.5–6.8) utilized in this study. Each container accommodated one strawberry seedling (40 seedlings), categorized as super elite seedlings, a term used in national certification systems to indicate high-quality. Seedlings cultivated in a greenhouse originate from a parent plant during their initial year. With a capacity of 10 L per container, the experiment encompassed 40 containers: 5 different growing media, each replicated 4 times without the bioproduct (20 containers), and another 20 containers with the bioproduct using the same replication scheme. The containers were placed on a flat surface in the greenhouse and arranged in rows. Each treatment was evenly distributed, and container spacing was maintained to prevent shading and ensure uniform growing conditions.

Different growing media samples are untreated and treated with bioproducts (+ BIO1).

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Various growing media underwent treatment with bioproduct BIO1 (a natural fertilizer made from molasses and magnesium sulfate). Additionally, the mixture comprised calcium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, and dolomite. It is believed that the application of BIO1 can diminish the necessity for mineral fertilizers while enhancing the physical properties of growing media. Growing media not influenced by the bioproduct were designated as controls. Furthermore, BIO1 stimulates growing media activity and aeration, promotes surface composting, and rejuvenates growing media structure. The application was carried out weekly during the strawberry cultivation period, which extended from May to July. According to the producer’s guidelines, the solution was prepared at a ratio of 1.0 g of bioproduct per 1.0 L of water. Compound fertilizers supplemented with micronutrients were utilized to stimulate berry bush flowering and fruit set. Throughout the growing season, from May to July, plants were fertilized weekly with a comprehensive fertilizer blend: NPK11-11-21 + K₂O (21.2%) + Mg (2.6%), S (25%), B (0.05%), Cu (0.03%), Fe (0.08%), Mn (0.25%), Mo (0.002%), and Zn (0.04%). Fertilizer application rates (20 g/m²) were established according to recommendations from producers and growers. The treatments and fertilizer compositions are summarized in Table 1.

Laboratory measurements began once the plants were fully established. We recorded the plants’ height, width, and chlorophyll index of the leaves in the test containers. Measurements were carried out two days after using bioproducts once a week. Strawberry yield was determined by weighing berries from each growing media container in four replicates.

Determining the strawberry productivity indicators and chlorophyll index

The height and width of the plant were determined by direct measurement. The height was measured with a ruler from the growing media surface to the top of the plant. The width was measured with a ruler between the two furthest opposite edges. The strawberry yield was determined by gathering ripe strawberry fruits from each plant and measuring their weight in grams.

The chlorophyll index of strawberry leaves grown in different growing media was determined using a mobile meter, the “CCM-200 plus” (ADC BioScientific Ltd., Hoddesdon, UK).

Statistical analysis

To assess the reliability of the findings, the data underwent analysis using the dispersion analysis method⁵⁶. Arithmetic means, standard deviations, and confidence intervals were determined at a probability level of p < 0.05. Significant differences among the investigated data were identified by calculating the least significant difference (LSD0.05).

The study showed that coconut fiber affected by a bioproduct derived from molasses and magnesium sulfate had the greatest positive effect on growing strawberries under greenhouse conditions. However, results were not statistically significant. The short duration of the study (one year) may have influenced statistical results. Therefore, long-term use of bioproducts could provide more insight into their versatility.

Growers using inert or low-nutrient substrates, such as coconut fiber, may benefit from supplementing with molasses-based bioproducts to enhance plant vigor and yield in greenhouse systems.

Future studies should explore different bioproduct concentrations and assess long-term effects under field conditions to confirm and expand on these results.

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Authors and Affiliations

1. Faculty of Engineering, Agriculture Academy, Vytautas Magnus University, Studentu Str. 15, Kaunas District, Akademija, LT-53362, Lithuania

   Kristina Lekavičienė, Egidijus Šarauskis, Sidona Buragienė & Vilma Naujokienė

2. Faculty of Agronomy, Agriculture Academy, Vytautas Magnus University, Studentu Str. 11, Kaunas District, Akademija, LT-53361, Lithuania

   Aida Adamavičienė

Contributions

Conceptualization: S.B. and E.Š.; methodology, S.B., A.A. and E.Š.; software, S.B. and A.A.; validation, S.B. and E.Š.; formal analysis, K.L., S.B. and E.Š.; investigation, S.B. and A.A.; resources, S.B. and E.Š.; data curation, K.L., S.B., A.A., V.N. and E.Š.; writing—original draft preparation, K.L., S.B., V.N. and E.Š.; writing—review and editing, K.L. and V.N.; visualization, K.L. and S.B.; supervision, E.Š.; project administration, K.L.; funding acquisition, K.L., S.B., A.A., V.N. and E.Š. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristina Lekavičienė.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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