References
-
Karuppannan, K. et al. Sex ratio and age structure patterns of Asian elephants from Peninsular Malaysia revealed by non-invasive surveys. JAPS J. Anim. Plant. Sci. 30(6). (2020).
-
Saaban, S. et al. Current status of Asian elephants in Peninsular Malaysia. Gajah 35 (1), 67–75 (2011).
-
IUCN. Elephas maximus. IUCN Red List. Threatened Species. 2024, eT7140A45818198. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en
-
PERHILITAN. Red List of Mammalsfor Peninsular Malaysia (Department of Wildlife and National Parks (PERHILITAN) Peninsular Malaysia, 2017).
-
Mohd-Radzi, N. H. S. et al. Determining the diet of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at human–elephant conflict areas in Peninsular Malaysia using DNA metabarcoding. Biodivers. Data J. 10. (2022).
-
Saaban, S. et al. Viability and management of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the Endau Rompin landscape, Peninsular Malaysia. PeerJ. 8, e8209 (2020).
-
Abdullah-Fauzi, N. A. F. et al. Determining the dietary preferences of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia based on sex and age using trnL DNA metabarcoding analysis. Zool. Stud. 61. (2022).
-
Chen, J., Deng, X., Zhang, L., Bai, Z. & Wang, S. Diet composition and foraging ecology of Asian elephants in Xishuangbanna, China. Acta Ecol. Sin. 26, 309–316 (2006).
-
Koirala, R. K., Raubenheimer, D., Aryal, A., Pathak, M. L. & Ji, W. Feeding preferences of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Nepal. BMC Ecol. 16, 1–9 (2016).
-
Birnie-Gauvin, K., Peiman, K. S., Raubenheimer, D. & Cooke, S. J. Nutritional physiology and ecology of wildlife in a changing world. Conserv. Physiol. 5 (1), cox030. https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cox030 (2017).
-
Vancuylenberg, B. Feeding behaviour of the Asiatic elephant in south-east Sri Lanka in relation to conservation. Biol. Conserv. 12 (1), 33–54 (1977).
-
Rode, K. D., Chiyo, P. I., Chapman, C. A. & McDowell, L. R. Nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and its relationship with crop-raiding behaviour. J. Trop. Ecol. 22 (4), 441–449 (2006).
-
Pyke, G. H. Optimal foraging theory: A critical review. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15, 523–575 (1984).
-
Cao, Z. et al. Comparison and association of winter diets and gut microbiota using trnL and 16S rRNA gene sequencing for three herbivores in Taohongling, China. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 53, e03041 (2024).
-
Ismail, N. A., Daud, U. N. S., Arazmi, N. F. N., Nor, S. M. & Mansor, M. S. Dietary shifts in Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica passage and wintering in Peninsular Malaysia: From the early to late migratory season. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 71 (2), 1–12 (2025).
-
Wadey, J. et al. Why did the elephant cross the road? The complex response of wild elephants to a major road in Peninsular Malaysia. Biol. Conserv. 218, 91–98 (2018).
-
Ong, L. et al. A., Asian elephants as ecological filters in Sundaic forests. Front. Forests Glob. Change. 6, 1143633 (2023).
-
Zafir, A. W. A. & Magintan, D. Historical review of human-elephant conflict in Peninsular Malaysia. J. Wildl. Parks. 31, 1–19 (2016).
-
Nor Hafisa, S. M. R. et al. Determining the diet of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at human–elephant conflict areas in Peninsular Malaysia using DNA metabarcoding. (2022).
-
Yamamoto-Ebina, S., Saaban, S., Campos-Arceiz, A. & Takatsuki, S. Food habits of Asian elephants Elephas maximus in a rainforest of northern Peninsular Malaysia. Mamm. Study. 41(3), 155–161 (2016).
-
Bokulich, N. A. et al. q2-longitudinal: longitudinal and paired-sample analyses of microbiome data. MSystems. 3 (6), 00219 – 00218 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems
-
Han, E. K., Cho, W. B., Tamaki, I., Choi, I. S. & Lee, J. H. Comparative mitogenomic analysis reveals gene and intron dynamics in Rubiaceae and intra-specific diversification in damnacanthus indicus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22 (13), 7237 (2021).
-
Martin Říhová, J., Gupta, S., Nováková, E. & Hypša, V. Fur microbiome as a putative source of symbiotic bacteria in sucking lice. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 22326 (2024).
-
Arazmi, F. N., Ismail, N. A., Daud, U. N. S. & Mansor, M. S. DNA metabarcoding unveils habitat-linked dietary variation in aerial insectivorous birds. Animals. 15 (7), 974 (2025).
-
Mansor, M. S., Halim, M. R. A., Abdullah, N. A. & Ramli, R. Barn Swallows Hirundo rustica in Peninsular Malaysia: urban winter roost counts after 50 years, and dietary segregation from house-farmed swiftlets Aerodramus sp. Raffles Bull. Zool. 68. (2020).
-
Finnegan, A., Sao, S. S. & Huchko, M. J. Using a chord diagram to visualize dynamics in contraceptive use: bringing data into practice. Glob. Health Sci. Pract. 7 (4), 598–605 (2019).
-
Oksanen, J. vegan: Community Ecology Package. (2022). Available from: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan
-
Jamaluddin, M. I. M. et al. Asian elephants involved in conflicts exhibit similar habitat use but travel farther than non-conflict individuals. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 55, e03228 (2024).
-
Magioli, M. et al. P. M. d. B. Dietary expansion facilitates the persistence of a large frugivore in fragmented tropical forests. Anim. Conserv. 25(4), 582–593 (2022).
-
English, M., Ancrenaz, M., Gillespie, G., Goossens, B. & Nathan, S. Linklater. Foraging site recursion by forest elephants Elephas maximus borneensis. Curr. Zool. 60 (4), 551–559 (2014).
-
Cabral de Mel, S. J. et al. Attitudes towards causes of and solutions to conflict between humans and Asian elephants. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 6 (11), e13238 (2024).
-
Evans, L. J., Goossens, B., Davies, A. B., Reynolds, G. & Asner, G. P. Natural and anthropogenic drivers of Bornean elephant movement strategies. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 22, e00906 (2020).
-
Ortega, J. & Eggert, L. The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation, vol. 85 (Oxford University Press, 2004).
-
Alfred, R. et al. Home range and ranging behaviour of Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) females. PloS one. 7 (2), e31400 (2012).
-
Mohd Taher, T. et al. Characteristic of habitat suitability for the Asian elephant in the fragmented Ulu Jelai Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Trop. Ecol. 62, 347–358 (2021).
-
Perhilitan. National report on wildlife and human-elephant conflicts (Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia, 2023).
-
Chen, Y. et al. Predicting hotspots of human-elephant conflict to inform mitigation strategies in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. PLoS One. 11 (9), e0162035 (2016).
-
Jamaluddin, M. I. M. et al. Ecological corridors enhance adaptation success of translocated conflict elephants: A case study of a sub-adult male in Hulu Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. Ecol. Solut. Evid. 6(3), e70049 (2025).
-
Sukumar, R. The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation (Oxford University Press, 2003).
-
Lim, T. & Campos-Arceiz, A. A review of human-elephant ecological relations in the Malay Peninsula: Adaptations for coexistence. Diversity 14 (1), 36 (2022).
-
Schwarz, C., Johncola, A. & Hammer, M. Foraging ecology of semi-free-roaming Asian Elephants in Northern Thailand. Gajah. 52 (2020).
-
Campos-Arceiz, A. & Blake, S. Megagardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal. Acta Oecol. 37, 542–553 (2011).
-
Berita Harian. 313 gajah liar dipindahkan sejak 2021, Kelantan tertinggi 104. Berita Harian. (2025). https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/nasional/2025/11/1472089/313-gajah-liar-dipindahkan-sejak-2021-kelantan-tertinggi-104
-
BERNAMA. Perhilitan Laksana Operasi Bersepadu Translokasi Gajah Besar-besaran. BERNAMA News Agency. (2025). https://www.bernama.com/bm/news.php?id=2445027
-
Harian Metro, 265 gajah liar dipindahkan di tujuh negeri, Harian Metro, (2025).
-
Graham, M. D., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Adams, W. M. & Lee, P. C. The movement of African elephants in a human‐dominated land‐use mosaic. Anim. Conserv. 12 (5), 445–455 (2009).
-
Ram, A.K., Yadav, H.K., & Rijal, A.P., Landscape predictors of human elephant conflicts in Chure Terai Madhesh Landscape of Nepal, Environmental Challenges, 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100458 (2022).
-
Beier, P. & Noss, R. F. Do habitat corridors provide connectivity? Conserv. Biol. 12, 1241–1252 (1998).
-
Haddad, N. M. et al. Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Science 348, 6230 (2015).
-
Robertson, B. A. & Hutto, R. L. A framework for understanding ecological traps and an evaluation of existing evidence. Ecology 87, 1075–1085 (2006).
-
Schlaepfer, M. A., Runge, M. C. & Sherman, P. W. Ecological and evolutionary traps. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17, 474–480 (2002).
